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Focuses on a scholarly, seventeenth century, religious society of Jansenists who founded the Port-Royal des Champs in Paris (France). States their writings and teachings were considered heretical. Finds Port-Royal's ideas later became popular culminating in the acceptance of Latin and language translation curricula. (KDR)

Focuses on the humanist ideal of nobility and humanist views about the type of education that would produce noblemen. Details the life and education of William Cecil, also known as Viscount Cranborne, as it pertains to humanist education culture established in the 16th and 17th centuries. (KDR)

Discusses the development of the British educational system and perceptions of teacher's classroom roles. Focuses on pedagogical teaching methods of 17th century English character literature in character education development. Concludes that this era of teachers demonstrated an interest in the complexities of the learning process. (KDR)

Explores the first phase of juvenile emigration from Britain to the Americas in the 17th and 18th centuries. Finds eerie parallels with the last phase of this British social policy in the 1960s as has been discussed in the media during recent years. (SD)

Traces the centrality of moral education in public schools from the 16th to the late 19th century and suggests how the past can serve to inform and to direct the present. It reviews teaching methods and curricular materials used to transmit moral values as well as the views of influential thinkers concerning moral education. (GR)

Analyzes Alexander Richardson's clothing metaphors which connected Ramist precepts to social values and philosophic assumptions drawn from the fields of fashion, psychology, and Puritan theology. Describes how these metaphors presented the Puritan community with an orientation toward listening and inculcated the Puritan speech community with linguistic values which served religious interests. (KEH)

Discusses a computer software package, available for the Apple Macintosh, which simulates the economic and social climate during the reign of Louis XIV of France, 1638-1715. Describes the benefits of using the program as a tool for teaching social history. Includes a course outcome and brief bibliography. (GEA)

Argues against Thomas O. Sloane's allegation that John Milton's "Artis Logicae," a commentary on Pierre de la Ramee's "Dialecticae libri duo," manifests antihumanism characteristics of Milton and Ramus. Reexamines Milton's account of probability, the links between Ramus and Cicero, and the roles Ramism played in sixteenth- and seventeenth-century England. (RAE)

Reviews sixteenth-and seventeenth-century writings by Rastell, More, Eden, Hakluyt, Peckham, Gray, Symonds, Johnson, Strachey, Purchas, Winthrop, and Cotton justifying English occupation of Indian lands through the Biblical Canaan analogy and the secular "vacant land" (vacuum domicilium) principle. Notes dissent by Crashaw, Williams, and others. Contains 95 references. (SV)

Reviews the use of the collaborative learning process in a seventeenth-century intellectual history seminar. Utilizing reader response, peer critiques, small writing groups, and peer tutoring, students became active participants in the learning process and assumed more responsibility for the course material. Includes a complete syllabus and reading list for the course. (RW)

Traces the life and inventions of Thomas A. Edison up to the invention of electrical incandescent lighting in 1881. Focuses on the process that Edison followed in developing incandescent lighting, including financial aspects, other competitors in the field, and the eventual establishment of the Edison Electric Light Companies. (RW)

Explores interactional processes between seventeenth century Iroquoian peoples of Northeast and French Jesuit missionaries who worked among them. Examines Jesuit attempts to change Iroquoian and Huron tribal culture, as reflected in Jesuit records, and evaluates effectiveness of these attempts. Examines Indians' reactions to Jesuit attempts at cultural transmission. (TES)

Argues that the experiences of U.S. women in the seventeenth, eighteenth, and nineteenth centuries may be uncovered through the colorful legacy of quilts. Outlines the teacher's task in integrating the study of quilts into the curriculum. Presents an imaginary scenario that illustrates the types of comments one might encounter in a classroom discussion on quilts. (DB)

Research into the history of alchemy and Paracelsianism in Italy has highlighted the role of Italian courts in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries as centres of elaboration and diffusion of alchemical knowledge. Among these, one of the best known is the Medici court which already dedicated spaces in the ducal foundry to the alchemical arts in the time of Cosimo I. This interest would remain alive with Francesco I and his son, Don Antonio de' Medici, one of the greatest supporters of Paracelsian medicine in Italy. This contribution presents previously unpublished sources, now preserved in the Archivio di Stato di Firenze and in the collection of the Biblioteca degli Intronati in Siena, that can help us reconstruct in greater detail some significant aspects of Medici alchemical engagement and can, above all, help further determine Paracelsus's influence in seventeenth century Florence. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Of similative origin, Polish jakoby derives from the connective jako 'how, that' univerbated with the irrealis enclitic by. From the earliest attested stages (late 14th century) into the 17th century, jakoby was used as a comparison marker and as a subordinator of manner or purpose clauses. The former use has persisted, and the latter was ousted. After the 16th century jakoby further evolved into a reportive marker, as a particle or complementizer. Contrary to what pathways explaining the connection between similative and evidential marking would suggest, jakoby's now predominant function as a reportive marker was apparently not prepared by inferential use, nor was its complementizer function mediated by a purpose function. Instead, purpose and reportive complementizers belong to different "branches", both of which can be motivated by an indiscriminate similative-manner function. The evidence in favor of this derives from a systematic evaluation of extant research and a corpus study covering almost the entire period from 1600 to our day. A crucial moment to understanding jakoby's functional changes is the insight that similatives can acquire propositional scope prior to entering the evidential domain and marking a metonymic relation between speech acts and epistemic attitudes expressed by the former. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

As a social institution, a border simultaneously divides and connects. When thinking about state borders, or borderlands, scholars tend to view them as either linear or zonal spaces, distinguishing as well as linking one state with another. My article argues for an alternative interpretation and explores the geopolitical and cultural meanings of a historical border region from both domestic and inter-state perspectives. The border of China and Korea along the Yalu and the Tumen Rivers, is arguably one of the oldest state boundaries that is still effective today. The history of the border river region as a "buffer space" can be traced back to the seventeenth century when Qing China and Chosŏn Korea established the border along their northern frontiers. However, the geopolitical function of this border went beyond considerations of defence or communications. From the mid-seventeenth century to the mid-nineteenth century, both the Manchu-Qing court and the Chosŏn court implemented strict laws to control domestic population flows to their northeastern and northern frontiers. Such policies, I argue, must be understood in the context of domestic politics in the two courts. Internal anxiety over preserving Manchu and Korean identity, coupled with strategy to control the border against an external power, contributed to the making of this borderland. Hence, the Qing-Chosŏn border region served as a "dual buffer". Employing historical records and local gazettes in the two countries, my article reveals a subtler layer of "buffer" from a case study in early modern East Asia. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the Rájec nad Svitavou chateau there is a Flemish cabinet from the period from about 1650–1680 decorated with scenes from Ovid's metamorphoses. The cabinet comes from the former collections of the house of Salm. The provenance is attributed to one of the suppliers of the Forchondt family art dealership. This cabinet was the subject of a conservation treatment in 2020. During this intervention, various surveys were completed. One of them was a dendrochronological survey of the larch construction panel found at the bottom of the cabinet. The presence of coniferous wood in the structure, together with the found inscription from 1845, called into question the authenticity of the cabinet. Dendrochronology proved that the larch panel was entirely contemporary and came from the French Maritime Alps. The last datable annual ring from an annual ring series of over 200 years was dated back to 1651. The cabinet case is certainly not the product of nineteenth century repairs in Prague. The result of dendrochronology is clear evidence of the use of imported softwoods in the manufacture of cabinets in Antwerp. The material was probably imported for the manufacturing of ships for the Dutch fleet, and the leftovers were sold on the local market. It can be assumed that more examples like this will appear in the future and should not be surprising. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This essay focuses on the need for a comprehensively conscious conservation approach when dealing with ancient stone sculptures coming from historical collections, that is to say those antiquities that were collected from the Renaissance onwards and were thus sometimes radically modified due to restorations accomplished between the seventeenth and nineteenth centuries. In the last decades, after the abandonment of the destructive approach of ent-restaurierung (de-restoration) widely practiced during the twentieth century, the preservation of marble accretions has gradually acquired a recognized historical significance, but still today inadequate attention seems to be paid concerning cleaning and surface issues. As demonstrated both by written sources and material evidence, cleaning used to be a crucial and extensive component of historical conservation treatments, often resulting in a dramatic alteration of the ancient piece. Patination and surface applications were part of the historical treatments. As shown by the recent conservation and exhibition of the Torlonia marbles, newly performed treatments aiming at preserving the rich and multi-layered history that sculptures acquired over time should be more careful in considering such aspects, both in terms of treatments and in the exhibition of objects. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Geological evidence, such as tsunami deposits, is crucial for studying the largest rupture zone of the Kuril Trench in Hokkaido, Japan, due to its poor historical record. Although 17th-century tsunami deposits are widely distributed across Hokkaido, the presence of multiple wave sources during that period, including the collapse of Mt. Komagatake, complicates the correlation with their wave sources. Understanding the regional distribution of these tsunami deposits can provide valuable data to estimate the magnitude of megathrust earthquakes in the Kuril Trench. The northern part of Hidaka, Hokkaido, where tsunamis from multiple wave sources are expected to overlap, is distant from the Kuril Trench. To clarify the depositional history of tsunami deposits in such distal areas, evaluating the influence of the depositional environments on the event layer preservation becomes even more critical. We conducted field surveys in Kabari, located in the northern Hidaka region, identifying three sand layers from the 10th to the 17th century and two layers dating beyond 2.3 thousand years ago. The depositional ages of most sand layers potentially correlate with tsunami deposits resulting from the Kuril Trench earthquakes. Utilizing reconstructed paleo-sea level data, we estimated that most sand layers reached approximately 2 m in height. However, it is noteworthy that the latest sand layer from the 17th century exhibited an unusual distribution, more than 3 m in height. This suggests a different wave source as the Mt. Komagatake collapse. The discovery of multiple sand layers and their distributions is crucial to constraining the maximum magnitude of giant earthquakes in the Kuril Trench and understanding the volcanic tsunami events related to Mt. Komagatake. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Over the course of the 19th century, the concept of melancholia morphed from a partial insanity defined by disorders of judgment to a disorder characterized primarily by mood disturbances. The francophone Belgian psychiatrist Joseph Guislain, whose work has not been previously translated into English, played an important role in this transition. We translate and comment upon two of his key descriptions of melancholia from 1835 and 1852, emphasizing the following 5 features. First, his concept of melancholia is quite "modern" meeting all DSM-5 criteria for major depression. Second, his clinical descriptions are vivid, often giving voice to his patients. Third, other aspects of his text reflect older concepts, including 17th century melancholic subtypes. Fourth, and of particular historical import, he was, in 1835, likely the first major European alienist to argue that nonpsychotic melancholia was an important form of the disorder and a legitimate mental illness. This represented key step in the transition of melancholia from a psychotic to a mood disorder and also helped expand the 18th century model of insanity which was as restricted solely to disturbances of judgment/imagination. Fifth, beginning with his 1835 writings, but more prominently in his 1852 text, Guislain emphasizes that melancholia is a form of phrenalgia – mental pain. In so doing, he played an important role in helping initiate this influential psychophysiological theory of melancholia that was championed by Wilhelm Griesinger and other important German and English psychiatrists later in the 19th century. • In 1835 and 1852, Joseph Guislain wrote important descriptive accounts of melancholia. • He was the first to recognize that melancholia could occur without psychotic symptoms. • He also contributed to the influential theory that melancholia resulted from mental pain. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Indigenous people in Mexico encountered and interacted with the visual images of Mary, Jesus, and the Saints via Catholic missionaries in the sixteenth century. I examine the complexity of Franciscan changing attitudes and practices toward transforming what they perceived as idols into icons in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. Indigenous Christians also adapted and synthesized artistic forms and meanings. Furthermore, artists from various cultures drew sources from Indigenous Mexican, European, and Asian traditions and created a visual Christian culture. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This essay considers John Donne's influence in English puritan and nonconformist circles between 1650 and 1700, focusing especially on John Bunyan. Scholars in recent years have largely passed over Donne's readers in these circles; now is a good time to bring them back into focus. Puritans writing during the latter half of the seventeenth century show familiarity with Donne's sermons, letters, and poetry, especially his Holy Sonnets. Based on the ways Bunyan and others engaged with Donne's works, it appears that Donne could provide devotional resources to puritan readers in times of spiritual, emotional, or physical loss or struggle, and his metaphysical poetics are visible in Bunyan in particular and puritan meditation more diffusely. This study deepens scholarly understanding of literary and intellectual history by exploring continuities between authors often framed as standing not only on opposite sides of political and cultural divides, but also on different sides of a literary and epistemic revolution. [K.C.] [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

As central agents in the cultural dialogue between China and Europe in the 17th century, Christian Chinese communities represent a rich and fascinating source, offering a unique intercultural perspective on the intellectual, cultural, and religious world of late Ming and early Qing China. What did these communities look like? How did they come into being and maintain their significance as a community? By utilising stories depicting scenes of Christian ritual practices in local Chinese contexts between the 1620s and 1640s, collected by a late Ming Christian convert from Fujian, this article delves into the life of Chinese Christian communities, specifically focusing on the dimension of ritual practice. It shows how rituals played a key role in the formation of these communities, not only in keeping them alive, but also in continually redefining their significance for their members. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper discusses how Thomas Aquinas and some Neo-Thomists scholars (Juan José Urráburu, Joseph Hontheim, Édouard Hugon, and Joseph Gredt) analysed the metaphysical possibility of miracles. My main goal is to unpack the metaphysical toolbox that Aquinas uses to solve the basic question about the possibility of miracles and to compare how his late nineteenth- and early twentieth-century followers solved the issue themselves. The key feature to differentiate the two approaches will reside in their use of different notions to account for the possibility of miracles, namely obediential potency for Aquinas and the laws of nature for the Neo-Thomists. To show why neo-Thomist scholars source to this notion, I also briefly discuss how the notion of the laws of nature emerged in the seventeenth century. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this paper, the modification methods of the Chinese Christian painting created by the missionaries in the late Ming Dynasty (1573–1644) were analyzed with the Chinese Catholic studies of the "Song nianzhu guicheng" and the "Tianzhu Jiangsheng Chuxiang Jingjie". After carefully studying the differences between the Chinese Christian painting and the original European version, the study shows that these Chinese Christian paintings were integrated with the Chinese literati paintings' elements and literati symbols, which include the "Yudiancun" (raindrop texture stroke), "Pimacun" (hemp-fiber texture stroke), "landscape screen" (painted screens with natural landscapes), and the mark of Chinese famous literati such as Dong Qichang. These adjustments conducted by missionaries aimed to make religious paintings more in line with literati aesthetics, which could build connections between the missionaries and the literati community for proselytization. However, the missionaries neglected that the literati community certainly would not sacrifice the existing social order and the vested interest brought by the current Confucian culture to support new ideas of "liberty" and "equality" in the Catholic doctrine, which caused a huge setback in the missionary work since the Nanjing Teaching Case in 1616. This research makes significant contributions to the understanding of cultural exchanges in the 17th century through a detailed exploration of the adjustments made by missionaries in the visual representations within Chinese Catholic literature. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Since the middle of the 17th century, scholars have been systematically describing numerous medieval manuscripts preserved in libraries and religious institutions that contain hagiographic texts, that is texts recounting the lives of saints. In this article, we apply quantitative tools to the resulting database to consider these codices from a new point of view. As such, we study their internal organization, that is the order in which their texts are arranged. We first present a visualization tool that allows to grasp this structure at a glance. Then, we describe a model to automatically classify manuscripts according to their internal organization, based on a constrained spline regression. The results of this classification task make it possible to identify the manuscripts that have a particular internal organization, called per circulum anni (following the course of the year), and thus to study their properties. Furthermore, they open the possibility to obtain clues regarding the origin of some codices and potential kinship links between them. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Asados, Argentine cook-outs or barbecues, to this day have a prestigious reputation within Argentine identity often due to its lasting association with the Gauchos—rural Argentine cowboys—who flourished in the nineteenth century shortly after the country's independence from Spain. However, what is less known is how this quintessential dish, especially the well-done slow-cooked nature of the meat, is a rarely explored window to the past. I stipulate that the transatlantic, transcultural, and even transtemporal importance of this dish preserved by the Gauchos since the nineteenth century places them and their descendants as the hidden heirs of clandestine Moriscos—mostly crypto-Muslims forcedly converted to Christianity in the Iberian Peninsula—who settled in the least monitored area of Spain's American colonies in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. Moriscos knew how to mask certain actions while still holding strong to some former cultural and culinary practices. So too did the Gauchos as they were originally coined rebellious outlaws who did not want to fully conform and assimilate to the dominant culture. Perhaps in viewing their shared cooking styles we can see the often ignored history of Andalusi influence via Morisco practices in the Southern Cone. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

John Owen (1616–83) was one of the foremost English Puritans of the seventeenth century. His story has been largely limited to events in Britain. The letters examined in this article, translated from the French, reveal Owen's reputation and activity among Huguenots at the end of Oliver Cromwell's Protectorate. Responding to critics of English religion like Moïse Amyraut, they highlight the largely neglected internationality of Interregnum religion and politics in which Owen participated through epistolary and print culture. They display the apocalyptic themes behind attempts at international Protestant union where ecclesiological debates over the nature of synods, toleration, political sovereignty and Church-State relations were decisive. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In 1653, the Congregation for the Propagation of the Faith created a secular mission for Scotland that initially struggled with finances and provision. Its Prefects argued that the Jesuits exacerbated these problems by failing to prepare students at the Scots College Rome intellectually for the mission. This article examines the resulting campaign for curricular reform that Scottish secular priests waged, one intended to improve missionaries' pastoral skills and undermine the college's Jesuit administration. It ultimately demonstrates the significance of education to wider conflicts between Propaganda Fide and the Society of Jesus regarding missions and resources in the seventeenth century. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Takeshima Bunwa, a collection of epistolary discussions on Ulleungdo between Suyama Shoemon, Hanshi of Tsushima, and Kishima Hyosuke, a fellow Hanshi from Tsushima, confirms that Tsushima was certain that Korea had more convincing historical sources proving that Ulleungdo is Korean territory and that Ulleungdo and Dokdo constitute a unitary territory. Dokdo is not subject to contention as Japan claims, and because Ulleungdo is a representation of Dokdo as a liveable space, Ulleungdo‐Dokdo is the proper name for the Korean territory. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The diversity of planted forest stands of the alien species Quercus rubra L. in Central Europe was studied. The northern red oak is a neophyte that has been cultivated in Europe since the seventeenth century as an ornamental as well as a useful tree. In 38 phytosociological relevés from Slovakia, Poland and the Czech Republic, we recorded a total of 223 vascular plant taxa, of which 10% were alien (with 9 invasive species). The stands were species-poor compared to the most native forests, with an average of 17 species per relevé, and most of the species had a low coverage value (around 5% on average). The representation of endangered species was very low, only three species were recorded. The dense canopy of Q. rubra and large cover of litter consisting mainly of fallen old red oak leaves affected the richness of the undergrowth. The mean cover of the tree layer was 84%, the mean cover of the shrub layer was 9% and the mean cover of the herb layer was 22%. The EuroVegChecklist Expert System assigned the relevés to five classes: Carpino-Fagetea sylvaticae, Alno glutinosae-Populetea albae, Rhamno-Prunetea, Epilobietea angustifolii and Robinietea. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Historical paper documents are susceptible to complex degradation processes, including biodeterioration, which can progressively compromise their aesthetic and structural integrity. This study analyses seventeenth century handwritten historical letters stored at the Correr Museum Library in Venice, Italy, exhibiting pronounced signs of biodeterioration. The techniques used encompassed traditional colony isolation on agar plates and proteomics analyses, employing nanoscale liquid chromatography coupled with high-resolution mass spectrometry (nano-LC–MS). Fluorescence microscopy was used for the first time in the historical paper biodeterioration context to supplement the conventional stereoscopic, optical, and scanning electron microscopic imaging techniques. This method enables the visualisation of microorganisms beyond and beneath the paper's surface through their natural intrinsic autofluorescence in a non-invasive and non-destructive way. The results demonstrate a diverse, complex, and abundant microbiota composed of coexisting fungal and bacterial species (Ascomycota, Mucoromycota, Basidiomycota, Proteobacteria, and Actinobacteria), along with mite carcasses, insects, parasites, and possibly protists. Furthermore, this study reveals certain species that were not previously documented in the biodeterioration of historical paper, including human pathogens, such as Histoplasma capsulatum, Brucella, Candida albicans, and species of Aspergillus (A. flavus, A. fumigatus, A. oryzae, A. terreus, A. niger) known to cause infections or produce mycotoxins, posing substantial risk to both artefacts and humans. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper presents the use of X-ray computed tomography and X-ray fluorescence in the analysis and expert research of the seventeenth century printed book "Eukhologīon albo Molitoslov, ili Trebnik" from Kiev. The main purpose of the survey was to confirm whether the book binding is original or whether it is a rebinding, and whether there are any fragments of the hidden older texts. Commonly used radiography is usually not able to provide sufficient information for these purposes. On the other hand, computed tomography allows a detailed and three-dimensional documentation of the bookbinding technology and the structure of the materials used, including the wooden boards. It will be presented that all elements of the weave are clearly visible, making it possible to show that there are no internal defects in the stitching and materials. It has also been convincingly shown that there are no fragments or layers of older texts in the binding, so no further invasive intervention will be necessary regarding this aspect. The paper also demonstrates the possibility of reading the text in a closed book utilising X-ray computed tomography data; this option may be advantageous for massively damaged manuscripts. It will also be shown, that thanks to detailed tomographic imaging of the wood structure of the boards, a dendrochronological survey can be successfully carried out without invasive intervention into their outer layers. From the CT data it was also found that the pigments of the letters have significantly different densities. Therefore, as part of the survey, elemental analysis of the writing was also carried out using a portable X-ray fluorescence spectrometer to confirm and clarify this finding. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

All over Southeast Asia is found a particular type of coarse Chinese export porcelain traditionally known as 'Swatow' ware but now more accurately identified as originating from Zhangzhou, dating from the late Ming period, from the end of the 16th to the early 17th centuries. One characteristic type of large Zhangzhou dish had a central circle with eight smaller circles around it, all filled with inscriptions in Arabic script. The marked visual similarity with the great seal of Aceh, which over a period of 250 years always gave the name of the sovereign in a central circle surrounded by eight small circles containing the names of illustrious forebears, gave rise to the tradition that these Zhangzhou calligraphic plates were specially ordered from China by the rulers of Aceh in the shape of their seal. A close chronological examination belies this widely held belief, as the Zhangzhou plates were largely produced before the Acehnese 'ninefold seal' was created in the mid 17th century, most likely in the reign of Sultanah Tajul Alam Safiatuddin Syah (r.1641–1675). Indeed, conversely, the presence of these prestigious and striking Chinese plates in Aceh may even have contributed to the rich visual repertoire of significant ninefold forms from which the royal Acehnese seal was born. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The processes through which northern townships, customarily governed by strong manorial institutions, came to embrace the structures and routines of vestry governance and supervision by county justices have long required further scholarly investigation. This paper presents a reassessment of the role played by the constables of the West Riding township of Sowerby, Halifax parish, in managing the highways function over the seventeenth century. This is feasible through the happy combination of contemporaneous paper records for the Wakefield court leet and of unusual and exceptionally revealing petty constables' accounts. Sowerby's constables creatively exploited mechanisms at the leet to enforce tenurial and township obligations for road repairs. While the appointment of surveyors is unattested before 1694 and statute duty arrangements are, at best, uncertain, a precocious policy of tax-funded maintenance became embedded in governance routines, as the township's propertied and clothier elite responded to the mid-century political crisis and pulses of assertiveness from the Justices' bench. Independency and improvisation are strongly supportive of change from below as the north's distinctive contribution to state formation in early modern England. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Friedrich Schleiermacher is often credited with playing a foundational role in the development of the modern concept of religion. His epoch-making Speeches on religion, published in 1799 amidst the widespread social and intellectual upheaval of the Sattelzeit, present a novel description of religious feeling and religious communication, which mark a turning away from the rationalistic treatments of religion in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, and which served as both inspiration and foil for scholars of religion throughout the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. This essay suggests a reading of Schleiermacher's Speeches that is organized around two interrelated claims. First, the text does not proceed as speculative philosophical treatise aiming to establish an overarching theory of religion but as a critical dialogue that inquires into the distinctive particularity of religion and religious expression. Second, religious piety, as depicted in the Speeches, is not found in the isolated inwardness of individual experience but in coordinated tension with sociality, in communications of religious feeling that are bound together with a living apprehension of the world. On this account, religion for Schleiermacher, though rooted in feeling and self-consciousness, is nonetheless no private affair; it is realized within the developing complex of social and historical living. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]